Hope, optimism, self-efficacy, and posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analytic review of the protective effects of positive expectancies

Objective: The present meta-analysis consolidated research examining how positive expectancies (e.g., hope, self-efficacy, and optimism) may protect against the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Method: Articles were identified by searching PILOTS, PsycINFO, PubMed, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses databases.

Results: Aggregated results from 154 studies indicated that positive expectancies were associated with lower levels of PTSD symptoms. This relationship was stronger for coping-specific self-efficacy (k = 38, r = -.49; -.54 to -.43) and hope (k = 20, r = -.34; -.39 to -.28) compared with general self-efficacy (k = 45, r = -.25; -.30 to -.20) and optimism (k = 59, r = -.29; -.33 to -.25) when examining cross-sectional studies, and results were consistent in prospective studies. Age and gender did not moderate the cross-sectional relationships.

Conclusions: These findings indicate that positive expectancies predict post-trauma resilience. Future research should identify moderators and examine positive expectancies as mechanisms of change in therapy.